• physical anthropologists have defined two ancestreal species
• will answer 2 out of the three topics 
• post cranial bones 
• humurus, ribs, vertabrae, radius and ulna, pelvis, tibia and fibula 
• plicene : 5 million to 2.5 million 
• savannah enviorment 
• a savanna is a mixed woodland, grassland ecosystem 
• savvana's thrive near lake sides 
• pleistocene 
• 2.5 million-10000 years ago 
• homo habalis - handy man is an intermediarie 
• austrolopithecus - homo habilis - homo erectus 
• a walk through the human evolution 
• the reveal fossils have thought scientists tangiingly 
• bipedalism creates minimum amount of exposure to the sun 
• the other is the sight line because you can see higher and further 
• austrolopithecus used pebble tools 
• bonobos stand up 
• astrolopithicus is a soutern ape and an eastern ape 
• can walk bipedaly across grasslands 
• can seek protection within the trees 
• protein rich meet lets them have a larger body and a larger brain 
• gender dimorphism 
• leapords eat astrolopithicus 
• pebble tools are crude 
• 1 or 2 percussive strikes
• evolution of hunting strategies 
• specific social units 
• acheulean hand axe 
• social engagment - cooperative hunting 
• toralba-ambrona, spain excavated in the 1960's 
• broca's area 
• speech production 
• homoerectus speaks 
• arcurate fasiculus 
• raymond dart 
• louis leaky and mary leaky - multiple species of astrolopithesines 
• donald johansne and his discovery of lucy 
• richard leaky and meave leaky 

pliogene

• 5 million - 2.5 million 
• 2.5-10000 
• Pleistocene
•  homo ergaster 
• homo erectus 
• homo ergaster is the archaic original ancestor 
• dmanisi, georgia
• homo erectus spread across grasslands  and killed those animals 
• social groups provided them with protection 
• aged people preserved them because of their knowledge 
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antapuerca site

• archeological site 
• site of several limestone caves 
• located near city of burgos in north spain 
• rich fossils records 
• most important sites 
• pit of the elephant 
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wooley rhinosorus

• horns 
• a strain vector biochemical investigation of the skull, mandible 
• extinction was from human hunting and climate change 

mammoths

• we know about mammoths 
• mammoths are extinct animals and are relative to todays elephants 
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lab 6

• cranium - the skull without the jawbone 
• frontal bone - the most anterior bone of the cranium 
• brow ridge - a bony ridge located above the eye orbits 
• parietal bone - one of the pair of bones posterior to the frontal bone that forms the top of the cranium 
• occipital bone - the bone that forms the back and base of the cranium 
• temporal bone - one of the pair of bones inferior to the parietal bone on each side of the cranium 
• zygomatic arch - cheekbone area formed by numerous small bones, allowing a space for the jaw muscles that attach to the mandible below and the temporal bone above 
• mastoid process - the bony projection located posterior to the ear the mandiblebelow and the temporal bone above 
• mastoid process - the bony projection located posterior to the ear that allows for the attatchment of neck muscles 
• auditory ossicles - the three tiny bones that help from each middle ear 
• spenoid bone - the butterfly shaped bone between the cranial vault and face 
• ethmoid - the small cube-shaped bone between the frontal and sphenoid bone in the cranium 
• maxilla ( maxillae, plural) one of the pair of bones that forms the face and holds the upper teeth

lab 5

• connective tissue - body tissue  extracellular matrmade of cells, fibers ( such as collagen fibers) and extracellular matrix 
• cartilage - a type of flexible connective tissue found at the joints between bones and in the nose and ear 
• articulation - a meeting between bones in the body 
• fibrous joint - a joint united by irregular, fibrous connective tissue that allows for little to no movement 
• cartilaginous joint - a joint united by cartilage that allows some movement 
• synovial joint - a highly mobile joint held together by ligaments and irregular connective tissue that forms a fluid-filled articular capsule
• bones play two key roles in our bodies. 
• First, the bones of the skeleton have a structural function. They act like the wood frame of a house. The muscles attatch to the bones, like drywall is attached to wood studs. This gives the muscles the structural support they need and provides a system of levers the muscles can use to move the body. The framing of a house also provides  a protected area where the plumbing and the electric wiring can be erected. Many of the bones in our bodies act as a similar protective structures. The second major function of the skeleton is a physological function, meaning the skeleton is an essential part of the normal and healthy functioning of the body. Inside the bones, there is a soft tissue called bone marrow. There are two types of bone marrow red and yellow 
• The red marrow is tissue that is capable of producing blood cells for the rest of the body. 
• The yellow marrow is made up of mostly fat cells, and the amount of yellow marrow increases as adults age.
• Bones also store calcium and phosphorus 
• woven bone - a types of bone that is onorganized and primarily found in immature bone 
• lamellar bone - a type of organized, mature bone 
• cortical bone - the spongy ( honeycomblike) tissue that forms the inside of lamellar bone 
• osteoblast - a bone cell responsible for forming bone 
• osteocyte - a bone cell responsible for bone maintenance 
•  osteocyte - a bone cell responsible for bone  maintenance 
• osteclast -  a bone cell responsible for removing bone 
• bone remodeling - the process of bone resorption and re-formation  
• long bone - a bone with an elongated middle shaft and distinct, slightly larger ends 
• short bone - a bone with a cube-like shape, with similar width and length dimensions 
• flat bone - a bone with a layer of trabecular bone sandwiched between two thin layers of flat cotical bone 
• irregular bone - a bone witha complex shape that is not easily classified as long, short, or flat 
• projection - an area of bone that protrudes from the main bone surface 
• sagittal crest - a ridge of bone along the mid line of the cranium that allows for the attachment of extra-large chewing muscles 
• depression- a hollow or depressed area of a bone 
• fossa ( fossae, plural) a shallow depression in a bone 
• groove - a furrow along the surface of a bone
• foramen (foramina, plural) a hole in a bone 
• canal - a narrow tunnel or tubular channel in a bone 
• foramen magnum - a large hole at the base of the cranium that allows the brain to connect to the spinal cord
• axial skeleton - the bones that lie along the midline ( centeral axis) of the body 
• appendicular skeleton - the bones of the appendages ( arms and legs) 
• superior - relative location lower on the body's axis 
• inferior - relative location lower on the body's axis 
• medial - relative location closer to the midline of the body 
• lateral - relative location farther from the midline of the body 
• proxial- relative location closer to the trunk of the body 
• distal- relative location farther away from the trunk of the body 
• anterior- relative location toward the front of the body 
•  dorsal - relative location toward the back of the body 
• venteral - relative location toward the belly of the body 
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